15. THE REIGN OF JUSTINIAN
The reign of Justinian (527-65) is frequently described as the Golden Age of the early Byzantine period. The uncertainty of earlier years was replaced by certainty of a new synthesis of ancient and Christian society. Nevertheless, despite the obvious glories of the age, historians are aware of the crisis that soon followed the emperor's death: to what extent were the difficulties of the late sixth and seventh centuries the result of mis-government under Justinian? For a map of the empire during Justinian's reign, click here.
A. Justinian and his Character
1. Justinian was the nephew of Justin I, who brought him to Constantinople when he was quite young.
a. Unlike his uncle, Justinian received a reasonable education, which allowed for the development of his truly remarkable intellect.
b. Whatever one ultimately thinks of Justinian, he was competent in a wide variety of areas: theology, politics, military strategy, art, architecture, and science.
c. This is but one example of the remarkable "civilizing" ability of Constantinople
2. At a relatively early age, presumably before Justin became emperor, Justinian married Theodora.
a. She was obviously of low birth, being the daughter of a animal keeper of one of the circus factions.
b. Procopius' treatment of Theodora is one of the most interesting in literature, but much of it is of questionable veracity.
c. Theodora was, like Justinian, a person of many talents (!) and was obviously very intelligent.
3. Justinian had a rare opportunity to learn the job of being emperor when Justin made him his chief advisor; in 527 Justin named him co-emperor and Justinian became emperor when his uncle died.
4. Throughout his reign Justinian's administration was characterized by unabashed totalitarianism.
a. Justinian seems to have believed firmly that he was the chosen instrument of God's rule.
b. He disregarded all opposition and refused to follow any procedures unless he agreed with them.
c. He offended the established aristocracy by choosing men of humble birth as his closest advisors.
d. This totalitarianism was nothing new; Justinian simply carried it to its extreme.
5. In religious affairs Justinian always advocated orthodoxy.
a. Under Justin he was personally responsible for ending the Acacian schism and the restoration of good relations with the pope. Was this done to prepare the way for the western reconquest?
b. Theodora always maintained monophysite sentiments.
c. In 553 Justinian summoned the fifth ecumenical council to meet in Constantinople in another futile attempt to pacify the monophysites.
6. One of Justinian's most lasting achievements was the creation of the Corpus Juris Civilis.
a. This was the ultimate codification of Roman Law, in which form is was passed down to later generations and to Western Europe, where it remains the basis of law today.
b. The codification was carried out by an imperial commission under the direction of Trebonian, one of Justinian's most trusted advisors.
B. The Nika Revolt--532
1. In a sense the revolt was a response to the oppression of Justinian's rule.
a. The tax collecting activities of John the Cappadocian, in particular, had irritated people.
b. In general, Justinian's heavy-handed ways had caused opposition and many of the aristocrats were angered.
2. The immediate cause of the revolt was the arrest and execution of members of the circus factions.
a. Unlike the emperors of the recent past, Justinian attempted to put a stop to factional violence, and he refused to support one faction against the others.
b. The factions united and the racecource term "Nika" (victory) became the watchword of the revolt.
c. There was rioting in the hippodrome and much of the central part of the city was destroyed.
d. The political revolt.
1) Members of the aristocracy took this opportunity to attempt to overthrow the emperor.
2) Hypatius, nephew of Anastasius, was proclaimed emperor.
3) The situation was serious and Justinian prepared for flight, but he was supposedly restrained by the advice of Theodora.
4) Justinian ordered the commanders Belisarius and Narses to attack the crowd, and as many as 40,000 people were killed; the autocracy of Justinian was established on an even firmer basis.
C. The Building Program
1. With the most important part of Constantinople in ruins Justinian had the opportunity to rebuild the city on a monumental scale.
2. The church of SS. Sergius and Bacchos had probably already been envisioned by Justinian before the fire.
3. The "Great Church" of Constantinople.
a. Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom had been begun by Constantine and it had already been destroyed and rebuilt once before.
b. Justinian's church was one of the greatest monuments of Byzantine civilization. The church of Hagia Irene (Holy Peace) was likewise rebuilt.
4. Justinian also carried out many rebuilding programs in the provinces, especially the construction of fortifications.
5. We know much about this program, since it is described by Procopius in the Buildings (de aedificiis).
D. The Reconquest of the West
1. Likewise, we know much about Justinian's military achievements since they are recorded in Procopius' Wars.
2. It is easy to explain Justinian's desire to reconquer the provinces that had been lost to the barbarians.
a. Legally they were still part of the Roman Empire
b. With the money Anastasius had left in the treasury and with his power confirmed after the Nika Revolt, Justinian felt he was in a position to carry out the task.
3. The papacy was favorable to Justinian's schemes of reconquest because of the ending of the Acacian Schism.
a. The emperor could once again act as the defender of the papacy and catholicism against the heretic (Arian) Germans.
b. Likewise, in North Africa the Catholic landowners longed for a restoration of Roman rule.
c. In 532 Justinian secured an "Endless Peace" with Persia at the cost of paying heavy tribute.
4. The War in Africa
a. In 533 Balisarius sailed for Africa
b. The Vandal fleet made some initial blunders and Belisarius was totally successful.
c. Vandal rule had never been popular in Africa.
d. in 534 Belisarius led Gelimer, the Vandal king, in a triumphal procession in Constantinople.
5. The War in Italy
a. This undertaking was more difficult because the Ostrogoths had established their rule on a firmer basis; they had been more successful at integrating the Roman nobility and persecution had been rare.
b. In 535 Belisarius attacked Italy; he fought on with very small resources.
c. In his absence the Ostrogoths revived under the leadership of Totila.
d. Belisarius returned to Italy, but he was unable to accomplish much.
e. Justinian sent the eunuch Narses as commander in 550 and he completed the conquest--which had taken twenty years.
6. At this time some areas of Spain and Gaul were also secured for the empire.
7. Exarchates were established at Ravenna and Carthage.
a. The Exarch was a military commander who also held political power
b. This was a notable departure from the policies of Diocletian.
8. The churches of Ravenna:
a. San Vitale
b. S. Apollinare Nuovo
c. S. Apollinare in Classe
d. Orthodox and Arian Baptisteries
E. Suggested Reading:
Bandy, A.C., On Powers, or, the Magistracies of the Roman State. Philadelphia 1983.
Barker, J., Justinian and the Later Roman Empire. Madison 1966.
Bridge, A., Theodora: Portrait in a Byzantine Landscape. Chicago 1984.
Browning, R., Justinian and Theodora. London 1987.
Bury, J.B., History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius to the Death of Justinian (AD 395 to AD 565). London 1923.
Cameron, Averil, Procopius and the Sixth Century. London 1985.
Cameron, Averil, “Chapter 3. Justin I and Justinian,” in A. Cameron, B. Ward-Perkins, and M. Whitby (eds.), Cambridge Ancient History 14 (2000), 63-85.
Evans, J.A.S., The Age of Justinian: the Circumstances of Imperial Power. London 1996.
Garland, L., Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. London 1999.
Jones, A.H.M., The Later Roman Empire 284-602. A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey. Chapter 9. Oxford 1964.
Maas, M., John Lydus and the Roman Past: Antiquarianism and Politics in the Age of Justinian. London 1992.
Ostrogorsky, G., “Chapter I.3: Justinian’s Work of Restoration and Its Collapse,” in History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, NJ, 1969: 68-86.
Ure, P.N., Justinian and his Age. Westport, CN 1979.
Vasiliev, A.A., Justin the First. An Introduction to the Epoch of Justinian the Great. Cambridge, MA, 1950.
Sources: All the works of Procopius (Wars [two books on Persian Wars, two on Vandal Wars, and four on the Gothic Wars], Secret History, and Buildings) are available in translations (Loeb editions and others). Blockley, trans., Menander the Guardsman; E. Jeffreys, The Chronicle of John Malalas; A.C. Bandy, John Lydus, On Powers or the Magistracies of the Roman State. Philadelphia 1983; Averil Cameron, Agathias. Oxford 1970.
