17. HERAKLEIOS AND THE THEME SYSTEM

Herakleios was one of those rulers who seem to have appeared regularly just as the Byzantine empire was on the brink of catastrophe. When he came to the throne in 610 the Roman state was in severe danger, but he managed to ease those dangers, perhaps through a radical re-structuring of the state. Even though much of his work was undone by the Arab invasions, his "reforms" outlasted him and they became the basis of the ultimate Byzantine revival in later years. In addition, much of Byzantine tradition looked back to Herakleios as a great hero who fought nobly and well against very difficult odds.

A. The Revolt of Herakleios

1. Under Phokas the affairs of state had been neglected and there was virtual anarchy.

a. Most seriously, the Avars/Slavs and the Persians crossed the frontiers virtually unchecked.

b. There was chaos in Constantinople as the circus factions engaged in continuous violence and Phokas persecuted many members of the aristocracy.

2. Herakleios, the Exarch of Carthage, rose in revolt against Phokas

a. His fleet sailed along the coast of Africa toward Constantinople, gathering strength as it went.

b. Herakleios the exarch was an old man, and he designated his son--also called Herakleios--as the leader of the revolt.

3. In 610 Phokas was overthrown and killed and Herakleios (the younger) was proclaimed emperor.

B. The Early Years and the Theme System

1. The years immediately after Herakleios' accession are crucial for any understanding of his reign, but we know very little about them.

a. Clearly these were years of crisis.

b. We know about this period primarily from the Chronicle of Theophanes.

2. During these years Herakleios may have introduced the system of the themes.

a. This question is still hotly debated by scholars, since the evidence is so difficult.

b. Essentially the question turns on a passage in Theophanes and one in Constantine Porphyrogenitus, both of whom seem to attribute the creation of the themes to Herakleios; both of these writers are late (9th and 10th century) and they may not reflect the situation in the seventh century.

c. A crucial question is whether the "reform" was introduced at one time by one emperor as an act of policy, or whether it developed slowly over the course of years or even centuries.

d. There is another fundamental problem, since the term theme (thema) was originally used to describe an army unit; later it was used as a political subdivision of the empire: how is one to distinguish the two in the sources?

3. The theme system had three basic elements:

a. The creation of themes (themata which were large administrative units governed by a strategos (general) who had both civil and military power.

b. The creation of stratiotika ktemata (soldiers' lands or military properties), which were given to soldiers by the state in return for military service.

c. The virtual replacement of the praetorian perfect by the logothetes, as the highest civil and financial officials of the state:

1) tou genikou (general account)

2) tou stratiotikou (military account)

3) tou idikou (private account)

4) tou dromou (public works, foreign affairs).

4. Whatever its origin, the theme system developed as time went on, and new themes were added as the state extended its military control over new areas.

a. The first themes were located in Asia Minor: Anatolikon, Armeniakon, Opsikion.

b. As time went on the large themes tended to be split into smaller units.

c. Until the end of the seventh century there apparently were no themes in the European part of the empire.

5. Although this may not have been the original purpose in creating the themes, the system did tend to solve the financial and administrative problems of the state.

a. Less revenue was needed to pay the soldiers.

b. The strategos maintained effective control over the theme and the thematic army was able to respond quickly to military emergencies.

c. This rendered revolt more likely, however, as the strategos was a very powerful individual.

C. Herakleios' War against Persia

1. During the first few years of his reign Herakleios could do little against the Persians.

a. They invaded Syria in 613 and (probably) in 614 they took Jerusalem, carrying off the Holy Cross to Persia.

b. In 616 they invaded Egypt, conquering most of it easily; the monophysite inhabitants of this part of the empire did not oppose the Persians.

2. The Counter-Attack

a. Herakleios made elaborate preparations, perhaps involving the creation of the basis of the theme system, but certainly involving important military reforms.

b. He made the campaign against the Persians something of a religious crusade: Christianity against Zoroastrianism.

c. The church supported him in this crusade, even to the point of contributing its own wealth toward the campaign.

d. In 622 Herakleios set off against the Persians and defeated them, reaching Gerzak, the ancestral Sassanid capital, which was destroyed in retaliation for the destruction of Jerusalem.

e. The Persians made an alliance with the Avars, and Herakleios was forced to divide his attention while both his enemies besieged Constantinople in 626.

f. At the Battle of Nineveh in 627 Herakleios was totally successful and the Persian king Chosroes II was overthrown.

g. In 628 (?) the weak king Kavad-Shiruya signed a peace treaty favorable to Byzantium.

h. Herakleios became the guardian of the Persian king: he had won the war against tremendous odds.

Coin of Herakleios & his son Herakleios Constantine (629-31)

D. Herakleios' Religious Policy

1. In part because of his reconquest of the East, Herakleios sought to find a solution to the Monophysite problem.

2. Assisted by the Patriarch Sergios, Herakleios supported the idea of Monotheletism.

a. The teachings of Monoergetism (that there was one Energy) in the person of Christ had not satisfied either party.

b. Sergios wrote a document called the Ekthesis, which Herakleios promulgated in 628.

c. The Ekthesis forbade discussion of Monoergetism and stated that the two natures of Christ were joined in a single Will (=Monotheletism).

3. Monotheletism failed to secure harmony and it was condemned by both Monophysites and Chalcedonians.

4. Herakleios did not strongly push the idea.

E. Suggested Reading:

Haldon, J.F., Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture.  Cambridge 1990.

Haldon, J.F., “Military Service, Military Lands, and the Status of Soldiers: Current Problems and Interpretations,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 47 (1993), 1-67.

Kaegi, W.E., “Heraclius and the Arabs,” in The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 27 (1982), 109-133.

Kaegi, W.E., “Some Reconsiderations on the Themes, 7th to 9th Centuries,” Journal of Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik 41 (1967), 39-53. 

Lilie, R.-J., “Die zweihundertjàhrige Reform.  Zu den Anfängen der Themenorganisation im 7. und 8. Jahrhundert,” in Byzantantinoslavica 45 (1984), 27-29, 190-201.

Ostrogorsky, G., “Chapter I.1: The Wars with the Persians and the Avars: Heraclius’ Work of Reorganization,” in History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, NJ, 1969: 92-109.

Stratos, A.N., Byzantium in the Seventh Century.  5 Volumes.  English Translation by M. Ogilvie-Grant.  Amsterdam 1968--.

Stratos, A.N., Studies in 7th-Century Byzantine Political History.  Reprints of articles published between 1967 and 1982.  London 1983.

Stratos, N.A. (ed.), Byzantium: Tribute to Andreas N. Stratos.  2 volumes.  Publications of articles of A.N. Stratos.  Athens 1986.

Return to Chronology main page.