19. THE SUCCESSORS OF HERAKLEIOS
Herakleios left his successors a difficult legacy: the empire was divided internally and had to face a series of challenges from the ascendant caliphate. That the Byzantine state was able to survive this time of troubles is a measure of the stability added by the theme system and the ability of some of its emperors. The period is a difficult one to understand, but events of crucial importance were taking place. The ultimate failures of the Arabs to take Constantinople or to make permanent inroads in Asia Minor were the beginning of the long process of Byzantine recovery.
A. The Dominance of Martina
1. Herakleios had married his niece Martina, a capable and ambitious woman who earned the enmity of the people.
a. Herakleios left the throne to his sons Constantine III (son by a first marriage) and Heraklonas (son of Martina).
b. Martina dominated the court, but she was rejected in part because she was a woman.
2. Constantine forced Martina into the background, but he soon died and she found herself in power as guardian for the young Heraklonas.
3. Opposition to Martina centered in the Senate, and Heraklonas was deposed late in 641.
a. Both Martina and Heraklonas were mutilated, which rendered them unable to rule.
b. Konstans II, the young son of Constantine III (i.e., the grandson of Herakleios), was named emperor.
c. Because of Konstans' youth, the Senate exercised unusual authority.
B. The Reign of Konstans (Constans) II (641-668) Pogonatos
1. Konstans was unable to stop the Arab advances at sea.
a. Muawija, the governor of Syria, made attacks into Asia Minor and in 649 built the first Arab navy--the first to challenge Roman naval superiority in centuries.
b. Muawija captured Cyprus (649), Rhodes (654), and Kos (654).
c. He defeated Konstans at the Battle of the Masts at Phoenix off the southern coast of Asia Minor in 655.
d. Muawija's struggle with Ali for the caliphate forced him to sign a peace treaty with Konstans in 659.
Coin of Konstans II (663-68)
2. Freed temporarily from the Arab threat, Konstans was able to turn his attention to the West, and he even planned to move the capital to Syracuse in Sicily.
a. Shortly after the peace with the Arabs, Konstans made a show of strength in Sklavenia, the first action against the Slavs in fifty years.
b. In 663 he arrived in Rome and then moved on to Syracuse.
c. He had many enemies, however, and he was murdered in his bath in 668.
3. In his religious policy Konstans attempted compromise, but he was unwilling to tolerate any opposition.
a. His western policy required the removal of the Ekthesis of Herakleios.
b. Instead, he substituted a document, called the Typos, in 648; this simply forbade any discussion of the religious controversy.
c. Of course, this did not solve the problem and Pope Mertin condemned the Typos.
d. Konstans had the pope arrested and condemned for treason.
e. Maximos the Confessor, a north African holy man, spoke out against the actions of Konstans but he would not be silenced so easily; he continued to oppose the intervention of the state in doctrinal matters.
C. Constantine IV (668-85)
1. After some initial hesitation Constantine IV, the son of Konstans II, succeeded to the throne.
2. The dispute within the caliphate had ended and Muawija was in firm control.
a. Beginning in 663 the Arabs invaded Asia Minor every year and ravaged it.
b. Every year, however, they had to return to Syria.
3. In 674-75 the Arabs attacked Constantinople and nearly took it
a. Greek Fire was used for the first time
b. The Arabs had finally to withdraw; this was high-water mark of Arab power against Byzantium--from this point on the Byzantines began to recover.
c. Some have seen this battle as more important than the Battle of Poitiers.
D. Justinian II (685-95, 705-11)
1. Justinian was the son of Constantine IV, and he was only 16 when he came to the throne.
2. Peace in the East allowed him to campaign with some success in the Balkans.
3. He carried out a policy of enforced migration, settling Slavs in Asia Minor and eastern peoples in the Balkans.
4. The process of the expansion of the theme system into new areas was continued by Justinian.
5. In 691-92 the Quinisextum Council (Council in Trullo) was held in Constantinople and enacted many significant measures for the organization of the church.
6. Justinian was extremely pious and he carried out many notable building and iconographic programs, including the first extensive use of the portrait of Christ on Byzantine coins.
Coin of Justinian II, struck in 692-95, showing a "Greek-type" Christ with long hair. The emperor is shown on the reverse (back) of the coin, with the legend, "The servant of Christ."
Coin of Justinian II, struck in 705 (second reign), showing a "Syrian-type" Christ with short, curly hair, no beard. In his left hand the emperor is holding a globe surmounted by a cross, saying PAX (peace) in Latin.
7. In 695 a revolt led by Leontios, strategos of Hellas, overthrew Justinian.
8. The emperor's nose was cut off and he was exiled to Cherson.
E. Leontios (695-698), Tiberius II (698-705), Justinian II (705-711), Philippikos (711-713), Anastasios II (713-15), Theodosios III (715-717).
1. The empire was ruled by a series of weak emperors, whose internal quarrels did nothing but weaken the ability of the empire to deal with the Arab threat.
2. In 705 Justinian II regained his throne and dealt out harsh retribution against his enemies for the rest of his reign; the Rhinotmetos was the only Byzantine emperor to regain his throne after mutilation.
F. Suggested Reading:
Brooks, E.W., “The Successors of Heraclius to 717,” in Cambridge Medieval History 2 (1913), 391-417.
Setton, K.M., "The Bulgars in the Balkans and the Occupation of Corinth in the Seventh Century," Speculum 25 (1950), 502-43.
Setton, K.M., "The Emperor Constans II and the Capture of Corinth by the Onogur Bulgars," Speculum 27 (1952), 351-62.
Return to Chronology main page.
