5. THE REFORMS OF DIOCLETIAN AND CONSTANTINE

The reforms associated with emperors Diocletian (A.D. 284-305) and Constantine (306-337) should be seen as attempts to deal with the problems mentioned above. They formed the basic organization of society in the early Byzantine period and are notable as an important attempt to regulate the life of a state through legislative fiat. The reforms were inaugurated piece by piece at various times in response to the continuing crisis and many of the details are uncertain, but they are probably best understood together.

A. Political

1. The reign of Diocletian put and end to the political chaos which had plagued the empire; simply by remaining on the throne for twenty years he stabilized the situation considerably.

2. Administrative reforms: their purpose was two-fold--to provide effective government and to avoid usurpation.

a. Many new provinces were created by the subdivision of old provinces.

b. Civil and military functions of office were separated; provincial governors no longer had military powers and military commanders had to seek funding from the civil administration.

c. An elaborate civil hierarchy was created alongside a military chain of command: at the top of the civil hierarchy, just below the emperor, was the praetorian perfect (praefectus paetorio), in charge of one of the 3 or 4 prefectures; below the prefect was the vicar (vicarius), in charge of a diocese, and the provincial governor (normally praeses), in charge of a province. Each province was made up of a number of cities (civitates, poleis), each administered by a council of leading citizens (curia, boule).

d. At the top of the military hierarchy, in a position similar to that of the praetorian prefect, was magister militum; below him were the comes (pl. comites) and the dux (pl. duces)

e. In addition there was an elaborate court: such officials as the magister officiorum, comes sacrarum largitionum, comes rei privatae, praepositus sacri cubiculi.

3. The person of the emperor was considerably elevated and separated from ordinary men.

a. The emperor was surrounded by a bodyguard and his everyday activities were associated with elaborate ceremonial.

b. He became an "oriental despot" in theory and practice.

c. The emperor was supposed to be chosen by the gods rather than by the people.

d. The origins of this development were based on Hellenistic kingship,

which was influenced by Mesopotamian ideas; but the immediate model

was probably the example of Sassanid Persia.

4. The Tetrarchy was Diocletian's attempt to solve some of the political problems by creating four emperors and (in effect but not in theory) dividing the empire into four administrative spheres.

a. There were two senior emperors (the Augusti) and two junior emperors (the Caesars [Caesares]).

b. The Caesars were to replace the Augusti when they died or resigned, and they were then to appoint two new Caesars.

c. This was to regulate the problem of the succession, decrease the likelihood of usurpation, and provide for more immediate local rule.

d. Ultimately the Tetrarchy failed, but it left its mark on the administration of the state and showed that the empire as a whole could be divided.

B. Military

1. As we have seen, the military command was extensively reformed and separated from the administration of the provinces.

2. The army was composed of various kinds of troops:

a. The limitanei--the old border troops, stationed permanently along the frontier; now little more than militia (primarily infantry).

b. The comitatenses--mobile field armies stationed in the interior, ready to go wherever the emperor sent them (primarily cavalry).

c. The imperial guards (scholae, etc.)--the "private" army of the emperor, stationed near the emperor's residence.

C. Economic

1. In A.D. 301 Diocletian attempted to stop inflation by imperial order, the so- called Edict on Prices.

2. The coinage was reformed: Constantine's gold solidus (struck at 72 to the pound) became the world's standard coin for the next thousand years.

3. An effective tax structure was devised, based on the annona and the indictio.

a. The annona was a land-tax determined by the quality to the land and the manpower available to work it (capitatio-iugatio).

b. The tax base was calculated periodically, eventually every fifteen years (the indictio).

c. The tax was originally collected in kind (normally grain), but money payments were soon substituted.

d. The new system allowed the preparation of annual budgets and put the financial system of the state on a relatively secure footing.

D. Cultural

1. Diocletian and Constantine followed the religious trends of the day and supported their political and military positions by reference to religious ideals.

a. Diocletian called himself Jovius and his junior associate Herculius.

b. This probably explains the last great persecution of Christianity, since the Christians naturally refused to support this program.

2. Authoritarianism, uniformity, rigidity, and appeals to strength are usually seen as the characteristics of the age.

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