I. Prelude to War

A. Despite his admiration of Hitler, Metaxas followed an independent foreign policy

1. King George was a friend of Britain.

2. He was impressed with British sea power.

B. Mussolini singled Greece out for intimidation

1. In October of 1940 Mussolini demanded that Greece agree to the Italian take-over of Albania and to the violation of the Greek border.

2. On October 28, 1940, Metaxas responded simply: "No!" -- this is now a national holiday (Oxi Day)

II. Course of the War

A. The Albanian Front

1. There was considerable national fervour for war within Greece.

2. Metaxas, however, would not allow Venezelist officers to re-enlist.

3. These officers formed the base for the British Special Operations Executive, which was already laying the groundwork for the resistance.

B. In Northern Greece the Greeks pushed the Italians back

1. The Greeks drove the Italians out of Greece and they occupied much of northern Epiros (southern Albania) by the end of 1940.

2. This had broader significance since it demonstrated the possibility of defeating Axis troops.

3. Metaxas died in January 1941.

4. It became increasingly clear that Germany would invade Greece.

C. British Involvement

1. With the death of Metaxas Greece accepted British offers to send troops to Greece.

2. Some 58,000 British soldiers landed in Greece, but there was confusion in co-ordinating military operations with the Greek army.

3. There was also indecision as to where to try to meet the Germans--what line to hold.

D. The German Invasion

1. Hitler wished to secure the Balkans in order to safeguard his flank in preparation for his invasion of the Soviet Union.

2. On April 6, 1941, the Germans invaded Greece and they met a disorganised resistance.

3. On April 20 General Tsolokoglou negotiated an armistice on his own initiative.

4. Athens fell to the Germans on April 23.

5. The Greek army, along with British troops, withdrew to Crete, along with the king--they hoped to use Crete as a large fortress, protected by the British navy, to hold the Germans off.

6. The Battle of Crete: beginning on May 20, the Germans began an airborne invasion of the island. This was the first time paratroopers were used to strategic effect. The island fell after fierce fighting.

        III. Politics and Resistance

A. Cost of the War

1. Greece suffered greatly under the occupation.

2. The Germans believed that an invasion was going to come through Greece (from Egypt) and so they kept large numbers of troops in the country.

3. The Germans forced the Greeks to pay for this occupation, largely through requisition of food and other supplies.

4. The forests were burned in many areas and people suffered from hunger and disease.

5. About 600,000 people perished during the occupation, about 1/10^th of the population of the country.

6. The Jewish communities of Thessaloniki, Ioannina, and Kastoria were singled out and they were almost completely destroyed.

7. The country was divided up among the Germans, the Bulgarians, and the Italians (who actually controlled most of the country).

B. George II fled to England, after a brief stay in Egypt

1. He formed a government-in-exile there.

2. Many Greek troops were evacuated to Egypt, where they fought with the British and looked forward to the day when Greece might be liberated.

C. Tsolakoglou became quisling Prime Minister of a government installed by the Germans

1. Besides the Italian and German forces, there were also Greek Security Guards who tried to maintain the power of the quisling government in the countryside.

2. Tensions were especially difficult among all groups of the population in such a situation, aggravated by hunger and privation.

D. The Resistance

1. While the other political parties were demoralized, the resistance was organised by the KKE (Communist Party).

2. The Communists, after all, had many years of experience of working underground and they were devoted enemies of the fascists (including the Greeks who supported the quisling government).

3. Acts of defiance began to take place--in many cases encouraged by the spirit of resistance that went back to the days of the Tourkokratia: antartes = kleftes.

4. On May 31, 1941, the German flag was torn down on the Akropolis.

5. In September 1941 the National Liberation Front (EAM) was formed.

a. In June 1941 Hitler had attacked the USSR; this had the effect for the Communists of transforming the war into a patriotic struggle.

b. EAM was organized and dominated by the KKE, and its purpose was open armed resistance.

c. EAM was careful to welcome a broad spectrum of political support and it called for a democratic determination of the political situation after the war.

d. The most important wing of EAM was the National Popular Liberation Army (ELAS).

e. Ares Veloukhiotis (nom de guerre of Athanasios Klaras) was the leading general of ELAS.

6. There were non-communist resistance groups, although these were organized later than ELAS and they were never as effective.

a. EDES: the National Republican Greek League, led by Napoleon Zervas.

b. EKKA: National and Social Liberation, led by Demetrios Psarras.

c. All resistance groups were republican in sentiment (i.e., they were against the return of the king) and they all advocated open resistance.

7. The king in England was generally unaware of what was going on in Greece.

a. His government in exile was largely concerned with old-style politics and preparation for territorial claims when the war was over.

b. The king wished to avoid open resistance to the Germans for fear of reprisals on the population.

            IV. Resistance Activity and Reprisal

A. British Involvement

1. The British Special Operations Executive became directly involved in the resistance movement in 1941.

2. Under Colonel C.M. Woodhouse, the British sought to coordinate Greek resistance efforts.

3. Woodhouse managed to secure cooperation between Zervas and Ares, although the latter was not enthusiastic.

4. Their main task was to cut the Athens-Thessaloniki rail line and on November 25, 1942, the combined forces blew up the Gorgopotamos bridge, doing just that.

5. This was to be the only example of cooperation among the resistance groups.

6. Most resistance activity was carried out by small groups of men, descending from the mountains and attacking German supply trains and small groups of Germans.

7. The resistance had an important effect in tying down large numbers of German troops who could have been used in the Russian war.

8. In this regard the situation in Greece was similar to that in France, or better, in Serbia.

        B. The German reaction to resistance activity was especially barbarous: their policy of retaliation was to kill civilians and destroy          whole villages.

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